The appearance of aluminum in the food (solid and liquid) is the cause of all the new diseases that appeared after the war. (fibromyalgia, multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer's, Crohn's disease, cancers etc..
Aluminum with many properties, agri-food industries use it as food additives, under different chemical formulas: metal (E173), sulfates (E520 to E523), phosphate (E541) or silicates (E554-555-556-559).
In these forms, aluminum is used as a preservative in patisserie, yeast in cakes, bleaching agent in breads and flours, anti-agglomer in salt or baby milk powders, coloring in confectionery shops, etc...
When water is treated, aluminium salts-based flocculant agents are added, in particular to remove microorganisms in the water and to make the water cleaner and clearer. Aluminum then binds to the suspended organic particles and forms flakes that accumulate and deposit under the effect of gravity.
Aluminum sulfate Al2(SO4)3 and AlCl3 aluminum chloride are the most common flocculants because they are efficient, relatively inexpensive, and easily obtained.
Russell
"Sodium seeks balanced unity in chlorine. It does not seek it in aluminum, phosphorous or silicon. Nor do any of the elements on the red, alkaline side of the spectrum, seek union with each other, nor do those on the blue, acid side seek union with each other." [Atomic Suicide, page 84-85]
Charles Hall
Aluminum was once more expensive than gold, and in 1886, a chemistry professor is said to have said in class:
If someone could figure out how to make it cheap, they would be rich in no time.
One of the students, Charles Hall, took these words to heart and began trying and figuring out how to smelt aluminum from bauxite.
He did it using his mother’s kitchen utensils and everyday tools. He was persistent and smart, and never gave up on experimenting, trying and failing often.
And indeed, after many attempts, he came up with a very cheap way to smelt aluminum and changed the world forever. Charles Hall later became one of the founders of Alcoa, the aluminum company.
His discovery led to the first widespread use of a metal since the discovery of iron.
So it’s no small feat. And yes, he made a lot of money from this discovery, as his chemistry teacher told him.
The Apex of Western Civilization…
Today in History - On today’s date 141 years ago, Wednesday, November 12, 1884, the 100-ounce aluminium apex of the pyramidion stone at the top the Washington Monument was cast at the Frishmuth Foundry in Philadelphia.
To celebrate the anniversary of the 1884 casting, a commemorative centennial event was held in the same Frishmuth building that was still operating as a foundry 100 years later. A replica of the pyramid, exact in size, weight, & composition, was cast on November 12, 1984, & was displayed by Tiffany’s in New York City.
In 1986, Frishmuth’s Foundry at the corner of Rush & Amber Streets in Philadelphia (still producing commercial castings) was designated as a historical landmark by ASM International (formerly known as the American Society for Metals). A cast-aluminium plaque affixed to the building bears the citation “Colonel Frishmuth’s Foundry has been designated an Historical Landmark. The site of the first commercial aluminum-reduction facility in the United States of America & the only producer of aluminum from its ore until the late 1880s.”
In 1884, aluminium was a rare & precious metal, more expensive than gold or platinum, but that changed four years later in 1888, when noted American inventor Charles Martin Hall (1863-1914), together with noted American metallurgist, industrialist, & financier Alfred E. Hunt (1855-1899), founded the Pittsburgh Reduction Company - now known as the Aluminum Company of America (ALCOA). By 1914, Charles Martin Hall had brought the cost of aluminium down to 18 cents per pound & it was no longer considered a precious metal.
Astute readers may have noticed the variation in spelling of “aluminium” & “aluminum” - the proper spelling is “aluminium,” but we have used the variant spelling “aluminum” in quotation marks. The discoverer of aluminium, noted British chemist & inventor Sir Humphry Davy (1778-1829) first named it “alumium” in 1807, then changed it to “aluminum,” & finally settled on “aluminium” in 1812. Noah Webster’s 1828 dictionary used the “aluminum” spelling, which caused that spelling to become commonplace in the USA, even though most of the rest of the world has always used the proper spelling - “aluminium.” The International Union of Pure & Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) officially standardized on “aluminium” in 1990, although this appears to have done very little to change the way people in the USA spell the word for day-to-day purposes.
America had no aluminum in 1941. Germany was building 1,200 fighters per month. America was building 12. The solution wasn't mining. It wasn't imports. It wasn't stockpiles. It was electricity. Millions of kilowatts of electricity that didn't exist yet generated by dams that hadn't been built to produce a metal that required more power than entire cities consumed.
This is the documented story of how America turned rivers into airplanes. How one metal became the bottleneck that nearly lost the war. And how the solution required rebuilding the entire electrical infrastructure of the Pacific Northwest in 18 months. Aluminum transforms electricity into flight. It's a fundamental equation in modern warfare.
The nation that controls electricity controls aluminum production. The nation that controls aluminum production controls the sky. But in 1941, America controlled neither. December 7th, 1941. Pearl Harbor. The Japanese attack destroys the Pacific Fleet and reveals a terrifying reality. America is catastrophically unprepared for air war.
Germany has 4,000 combat aircraft. Japan has 2,400. Combined access air power 6,400 warplanes with production capacity exceeding 1,200 per month. America has 2,846 combat aircraft most obsolete. Production capacity 500 aircraft per month, but only 12 of those are heavy bombers. The B17 flying fortresses that will supposedly win the war through strategic bombing.
President Roosevelt announces the goal 60,000 aircraft in 1942, 125,000 in 1943. Military planners call it impossible. Not because America lacks factories or workers. Because America lacks aluminum, a single B17 Flying Fortress requires 6,600 lb of aluminum. AB24 Liberator requires 8,000 lb. The P51 Mustang fighter requires 1,800 lb.
Roosevelt's 60,000 aircraft target requires approximately 240 million pounds of aluminum in 1942 alone. American aluminum production in 1941, 309,000 tons, roughly 618 million pounds per year. Sounds sufficient until you realize that civilian economy consumes most of it; automobiles, kitchen appliances, construction materials, electrical transmission lines, available aluminum for aircraft in 1941, approximately 180 million pounds.
Roosevelt needs 240 million for aircraft alone while maintaining civilian production while supplying Britain and the Soviet Union through lend lease. The actual requirement double current production immediately. The problem. Aluminum doesn’t grow in mines. It’s manufactured through one of the most energy intensive industrial processes ever developed and America doesn’t have enough electricity.
Aluminum is the most abundant metal in Earth’s crust. Third most abundant element after oxygen and silicon. But it never exists in pure form. It’s always locked in compounds. Bowside or primarily aluminum oxide mixed with iron, silicon, and other elements. Extracting pure aluminum from boite requires two industrial processes, each demanding enormous energy.
First, the Bayer process converts boite into aluminina. Pure aluminum oxide. This requires crushing ore, dissolving it in caustic soda at high temperature and pressure, then precipitating aluminum oxide crystals. Energy intensive but manageable. Second, the Hall Herald process converts aluminina into aluminum metal.
This is where physics becomes economics. Aluminum oxide melts at 2072° C. Magically high. But in 1886, two inventors working independently, Charles Martin Hall in Ohio and Paul Hayut in France discovered that aluminum oxide dissolves in molten cryolyte at 960° C. pass electric current through this molten bath and pure aluminum metal deposits at the cathode.
The physics is simple. The energy requirement is staggering. Producing one pound of aluminum requires approximately 7.5 kwatt hours of electricity. A single B7 requiring 6,600 lb of aluminum consumes 49,500 kwatt hours. Enough electricity to power an average American home for 4 years. Roosevelt’s 60,000 aircraft require approximately 14.
4 billion kilowatt hours of electricity just for the aluminum just for one year. American electricity generation capacity in 1941 180 billion kwatt hours annually but that powers everything cities, factories, homes existing industries aluminum smelters already consume 8% of American electricity generation doubling aluminum production means increasing electricity consumption by another 8% while simultaneously expanding aircraft factories shipyards munitions plants, all requiring additional power.
The bottleneck isn’t aluminum, it’s electricity. And in 1941, America doesn’t have enough. The aluminum company of America, Alcoa, dominates American production with 90% market share. Founded in 1888 by Charles Martin Hall, the company has spent 50 years perfecting aluminum production, acquiring bauxite deposits, building smelters, and securing electricity contracts.
Alcoa operates smelters in Msina, New York. Powered by the Saint Lawrence River, Alcoa, Tennessee, powered by the Tennessee Valley Authority Dams, Baden, North Carolina. Powered by the Yodkin River, Vancouver, Washington. Powered by Bonnyville Dam on the Columbia River. Each smelter requires enormous constant electricity supply.
Aluminum production can’t be interrupted. The molten cryolyte baths operate continuously at 960° C. Shutting down a potline, the series of electrolytic cells means waiting weeks to restart production. Alcoa smelters run 24 hours daily, consuming electricity equivalent to medium-sized cities, and they’re already operating at capacity.
War Department contracts for aluminum arrive at Alcoa headquarters in Pittsburgh in January 1942. The orders are staggering. Double production in 6 months. Triple it by year’s end. Alcoa President Edward K. Davis reviews the orders, then reviews his electricity contracts, then makes the calculation that military planners haven’t fully grasped.
He sends a telegram to Washington. Cannot fulfill aluminum requirements with existing electrical capacity. Require additional 3,000 megawatt dedicated power supply. Lead time to construct new generating capacity. Two, four, three, six months minimum. Current electrical grid insufficient. 3,000 megawatt equivalent to three Hoover dams with construction timeline extending into 1944, 2 years after Roosevelt needs the aluminum.
The response from Washington, unacceptable. Find solution immediately. Davis doesn’t have a solution, but he knows someone who might. The Bonnyville Power Administration operates in the Pacific Northwest, managing hydroelectric dams on the Columbia River. Created in 1937 to market power from Bonnyville Dam, the BPA has spent four years trying to find customers for surplus electricity.
The problem Bonnyville Dam generates 518 megawatts of power. The Pacific Northwest in 1940 consumes roughly 200 megawatt. The remaining 300 plus megawatts goes unused because there aren’t enough customers. The BPA has been desperately seeking industrial users. The agency offers electricity at rock bottom rates. 2 mills per kilowatt hour, roughly 1/5 the national average.
They’ve tried attracting chemical plants, steel mills, any industry requiring large amounts of power. few takers. The Pacific Northwest is too remote. Transportation costs offset cheap electricity. Industries cluster near markets, not power sources. Except aluminum. Aluminum’s value to weight ratio makes transportation viable.
A pound of aluminum sells for 15 cents in 1941, high enough that shipping costs from remote smelters don’t matter. More importantly, aluminum’s electricity consumption is so extreme that cheap power overwhelms all other cost factors. Labor, raw materials, transportation, everything becomes secondary to electricity price.
At 2 ms per kilowatt hour, Bonnyville Power makes aluminum production economically viable even in remote locations. The BPA has known this since 1940. They’ve been courting aluminum producers for 2 years. Alcoa explored building a smelter in Washington state, but delayed due to uncertain wartime demand. That uncertainty evaporated.
December 7th, 1941. January 1942. Emergency meeting in Washington DC. Present War Production Board Chairman Donald Nelson, ALCOA President Edward Davis, Bonnyville Power Administration Director Paul Raver, and engineers from the Bureau of Reclamation and Army Corps of Engineers. Roosevelt’s requirement 60,000 aircraft in 1942 requiring 240 million pounds of aluminum. Existing capacity 180 million.
Shortfall 60 million pounds minimum more if civilian consumption continues. Davis presents the constraints. Each new smelter requires 18 months to construct under normal conditions. Each requires dedicated electrical supply of 1502000 megawatt equivalent to a city of 100,000 people.
We need at least three new smelters to meet requirements. That means 600 megawatts of new generating capacity and we need it operational by late 1943 at the latest. Bureau of Reclamation Engineer Frank Crowe responds, “Conventional construction timeline for 600 megawatts of hydroelectric capacity, four 5 years minimum.
Grand Coulie Dam will generate 1974 megawatts when complete, but it’s been under construction since 1933 and won’t be fully operational until 1942. We can’t build new dams fast enough. Paul Raver from the BPA speaks. We don’t need to build new dams. We have surplus capacity now. Bonnyville Dam has 300 megawatt unused. Grand Coulie will add nearly 2,000 megawatt when it comes online.
Combined, that’s 2,300 megawatts of available hydroelectric power in the Pacific Northwest. More than enough for massive aluminum expansion. The room is silent. Then someone asks the obvious question, why hasn’t Alcoa already built smelters there? Davis answers, we’ve been negotiating with BPA since 1940, but building smelters in remote locations requires massive capital investment.
We needed guaranteed long-term demand to justify the cost. Now we have it. The issue is timeline. Normal smelter construction takes 18 months. We need to cut that to 12 months or less. Can it be done? Not under normal conditions. But these aren’t normal conditions. February 1942 war production board issues directive. Aluminum production expansion receives highest national priority.
All agencies will provide maximum support for construction of new smelting capacity in Pacific Northwest. The plan. Build three massive aluminum smelters near existing and planned hydroelectric dams on the Columbia River. Vancouver, Washington. Expand existing Alcoa smelter. Long View, Washington. New smelter. Troutdale, Oregon. New smelter.
Additional smelters planned for four; Spokane, Washington, Five, Tacoma, Washington. Six, me, Washington. Combined new capacity, 400,000 tons annually, more than doubling American production. Required electricity, 1,800 megawatt, dedicated to aluminum smelting. Source: Bonnyville Dam, 518 megawatt.
Grand Coulie Dam 1,974 megawatt when complete. plus expansions at existing Columbia River dams. Construction timeline 1 one four months for each smelter. The engineering challenges are immense. First, raw materials. Each smelter requires thousands of tons of steel for buildings and pot lines, millions of bricks for furnace linings, copper for electrical bus bars, and specialized equipment for electrolytic cells.
All materials are rationed for war production. Second, transportation. The Pacific Northwest lacks rail capacity to ship construction materials and finished aluminum. New rail lines must be built. Existing lines must be expanded. Third, housing. Each smelter employs 2,000 3,000 workers. The towns where they’ll be built, Vancouver, Long View, Spokane, can’t house that many new workers.
Temporary housing must be constructed. Fourth, expertise. Aluminum smelting is specialized metallurgy. Trained workers are scarce. Thousands must be recruited and trained while facilities are still under construction. Fifth, power transmission. Even with dams generating electricity, that power must reach smelters via high voltage transmission lines.
New lines must be strung across mountains and rivers. Each challenge would normally require months or years to solve. The War Production Board gives them months. March 1942, construction begins simultaneously at three sites. Long View, Washington, population 10,000. quiet mill town on the Columbia River. Within weeks, 8,000 construction workers arrive.
The town’s population nearly doubles overnight. Temporary housing goes up in days. Prefab buildings, trailers, even tents. Workers sleep in shifts because there aren’t enough beds. The smelter site is cleared. 200 acres of forest removed, foundations poured, steel frames erected. Work continues 24 hours daily under flood lights. Materials arrive by rail and barge, steel I-beams from Pittsburgh, bricks from Ohio kilns, copper from Montana mines.
Each component prioritized by war production board directive requisitioned ahead of other industrial needs. The speed is unprecedented. Normal construction sequencing complete foundations before starting structural steel. Finish buildings before installing equipment is abandoned. Everything happens simultaneously. Foundations pour while steel frames rise.
Equipment arrives while walls are still being built. Electricians string bus bars in buildings without roofs. Engineers call it chaos, but it works. Similar scenes at Troutdale, Oregon. at Spokane, Washington. At Tacoma, thousands of workers, millions of construction hours, all racing against impossible deadlines because Roosevelt’s 60,000 aircraft depend on aluminum that doesn’t exist yet.
The Colombia River becomes America’s arsenal. Not through guns or ships, through electricity. If you want to understand how American aluminum production increased 600% in two years, transforming rivers into fighter planes and changing warfare forever, hit that like button. This is industrial history that determined the war’s outcome.
Back to the dams. Grand Coulie Dam is the centerpiece. When completed, it will be the largest structure ever built by humans. a concrete colossus 5,223 feet long and 550 ft high containing 12 million cubic yards of concrete. Construction began in 1933 as a depression era public works project. The purpose irrigate farmland in eastern Washington.
Power generation was secondary. The dam’s first generators came online in 1941 producing 518 megawatts. But the full design capacity 1974 megawatt from 18 generators won’t be reached until all turbines are installed. War changes the timeline. In 1942, Grand Coulie is still under construction. Only six of 18 generators are operational.
12 more must be installed to reach full capacity. The Bureau of Reclamation estimates completion in 1943 or 1944. Too late for Roosevelt’s immediate needs. War Production Board orders accelerate Grand Coulie generator installation. All 12 remaining turbines operational by December 1942. It’s physically impossible.
Each generator weighs 2,800 tons. Installation requires precision alignment, electrical connections, cooling systems, control equipment. Even under optimal conditions, installing 12 generators in 8 months would be extraordinary. But these aren’t optimal conditions. The war demands it. Engineers work two 4 hour shifts. Generators manufactured by General Electric in Skenectity, New York.
Ship by rail. Special heavy haul cars. Priority routing crossing the country in days instead of weeks. Each generator arrives at Grand Coulie is lowered into the powerhouse by massive cranes aligned with water turbines connected to transformers and transmission lines. Installation that normally takes 6 weeks per unit compressed to 3 weeks.
By September 1942, nine additional generators are operational. By December, all 18 are running. Grand Coulie Dam reaches full capacity 2 years ahead of schedule. output 1,974 megawatt, enough to power 3 million homes. Instead, it powers aluminum smelters. The physics of aluminum production explains why electricity matters more than any other input.
The Hall Herald process requires dissolving aluminina L23 in molten cryolyte Nasai 3LF at 960° C. Electric current passes through the bath via carbon anodes suspended above and carbon cathodes lining the bottom of the cell. At the cathode megatide electrode, aluminum ions gain electrons and deposit as molten aluminum metal.
At the anode positive electrode, oxygen ions release electrons and react with carbon, producing. The theoretical minimum energy requirement is approximately 6.3 kilowatt hours per pound of aluminum. Actual industrial process requires 7 8KH/LPALB due to inefficiencies, electrical resistance, heating the bath, current efficiency losses, heat radiation.
This energy requirement is non-negotiable. It’s determined by fundamental electrochemistry. You cannot produce aluminum with less electricity. Chemical shortcuts don’t exist compared to steel. Producing one pound of steel from iron ore requires approximately 0.4 kilowatt hours. Aluminum requires 20 times more energy compared to copper.
Electrolytic copper refining requires approximately 1.5 kilowatt hours per pound. Aluminum requires five times more. Aluminum’s extreme energy requirement means electricity cost dominates production economics. In 1942, electricity represents 20-30% of total aluminum production cost. Labor, raw materials, capital costs. Everything else combined costs less than the electricity bill.
This creates an unusual economic dynamic. Aluminum smelters locate near cheap electricity, not near bauxite mines or customer markets. Bauxite ships economically worldwide. Jamaica, Surinam, Guyana produce most American bauxite. Shipping ore to smelters adds minor cost. Finished aluminum ships economically worldwide.
High value to ratio makes transportation viable. But electricity cannot be shipped economically. In 1942, long-distance power transmission loses 5-10% per 500 miles. Cross-country transmission is impractical. Therefore, build smelters where electricity is cheapest. Pacific Northwest hydroelectric power at 2 m/kw makes aluminum production viable where 10 ms/kw elsewhere makes it impossible.
The smelters rise faster than anyone thought possible. Long view, Washington, first potline operational. September 1942, just 6 months after groundbreaking. Full capacity by December 1942. Output 66,000 tons annually. Troutdale, Oregon. Operational October 1942. Full capacity January 1943. Output 48,000 tons annually.
Vancouver, Washington. Also an expansion. Additional capacity online. November 1942. Output increase 80,000 tons annually. Spokane, Tacoma. Staggered completion through 1943. Combined Pacific Northwest aluminum production increase 400,000 tons by end of 1943. Total American aluminum production 1941 309,000 tons, 1942 589,000 tons, 1943 920,000 tons. 1944 1,600 tons. The numbers tell the story. American aluminum production tripled in 3 years. Nearly all growth came from Pacific Northwest smelters powered by Colombia River dams. Aircraft production followed aluminum production 1941 19,400 aircraft. 1942, 47,800 aircraft 1943, 86,000 aircraft, 1944 96,300 aircraft.
Roosevelt’s original goal, 60,000 aircraft in 1942, wasn’t met, but 47,800 represented a 146% increase from 1941. By 1943, production exceeded Roosevelt’s 1942 target. The constraint was aluminum until mid 1943. After that, the constraint became skilled labor, engines, and airframe production capacity. But aluminum stopped being the bottleneck precisely because of Colombia River smelters.
The environmental and social costs were substantial. The Colombia River Basin underwent the most dramatic industrial transformation in American history. The river that Native Americans had fished for 10,000 years became a series of reservoirs generating electricity for war production. Grand Coulie Dam flooded 21,000 acres of farmland and displaced over 3,000 people.
Salmon runs that had sustained indigenous communities for millennia were blocked. The Bonnyville, Spokane, and other tribes lost ancestral lands and resources. Bonnyville Dam, completed in 1938, had already disrupted salmon migration. Attempts to build fish ladders around Grand Coulie were abandoned. The dam was too tall, the drop too steep.
Upstream salmon populations collapsed. The social costs. Thousands of workers arrived in towns unprepared for growth. Housing shortages, infrastructure strain, racial tensions. The workforce was predominantly white with black workers relegated to lower paying positions despite doing identical labor. Smelter towns like Long View and Vancouver exploded in population.
Temporary became permanent. Workers who came for construction jobs stayed for smelter operation. Communities transformed permanently. The pollution, aluminum smelting, produces fluoride emissions, sulfur dioxide, and particulate matter. 1942 environmental regulations were minimal. Smelters operated under wartime exemptions, emitting pollutants that would be illegal decades later.
Workers faced hazards. Extreme heat, toxic fumes, electrocution risks, burns from molten metal. Safety regulations were relaxed under wartime pressure. Injury rates were high. These costs were documented but accepted as necessary for victory.
The German comparison is illuminating. Germany entered World War II with substantial aluminum production capacity, approximately 200,000 tons annually in 1939, primarily from smelters in Bavaria and Austria, powered by Alpine hydroelectric stations.
But Germany’s aluminum production couldn’t expand like America’s. Why not? Electricity constraints. German hydroelectric capacity was limited by geography. The Alps provided some power but nowhere near the potential of the Colombia River. Germany relied heavily on coal fired power plants which were expensive to expand and vulnerable to bombing.
Allied bombing campaign specifically targeted German aluminum production. The town of Napsac near Cologne site of Verin Day aluminum work a major smelter was bombed repeatedly. Other smelters in Austria and Bavaria were attacked. German aluminum production peaked at 263,000 tons in 1943, then declined as bombing intensified.
1943, 263,000 tons. 1944, 245,000 tons. 1945, 105,000 tons. Germany also imported aluminum from occupied Norway, where hydroelectric power enabled limited production. But combined German controlled aluminum production never exceeded 300,000 tons annually. Meanwhile, American production reached 920,000 tons in 1943, more than three times German output.
The result, Germany produced approximately 40,000 combat aircraft per year, 1943 1 1944. America produced 96,000 in 1944 alone. The aluminum differential translated directly into aircraft differential. More aluminum meant more airframes. More airframes meant air superiority. By 1944, Allied air forces dominated European and Pacific skies.
Not solely because of better pilots or tactics because of industrial capacity to produce aluminum and therefore aircraft in quantities Germany and Japan couldn’t match. The strategic implications extended beyond aircraft. aluminum enabled Liberty ships. Each Liberty ship used approximately 50,000 lbs of aluminum in superstructure, piping, and equipment.
America built 2710 Liberty ships 1945. Total aluminum approximately 67 million pounds. Landing craft, LSTs, LCIS, Higgins boats, all used aluminum to reduce weight while maintaining strength. The invasion of Normandy involved 4,100 landing craft. Most incorporated aluminum components vehicles.
Jeeps used aluminum in engine blocks and transmission housings. With 660,000 Jeeps produced, aluminum consumption was substantial. Trucks similarly used aluminum components. Ordinance. Artillery shells used aluminum alloys for fuses and components. Incendiary bombs required aluminum powder. The Manhattan project used aluminum tubing in uranium enrichment facilities.
The cumulative effect. Every aspect of American military production depended on abundant aluminum and abundant aluminum depended on abundant electricity from Columbia River dams. Post war, the aluminum industry transformed permanently. The Pacific Northwest smelters built for war production continued operating. Alcoa’s monopoly ended.
Wartime smelters were sold to new companies under government antitrust action. Reynolds Metals and Kaiser Aluminum emerged as major competitors, both acquiring Pacific Northwest facilities. By 1950, American aluminum production capacity exceeded 1.5 million tons annually. Half that capacity was in the Pacific Northwest, powered by Colombia River dams.
Aluminum prices fell as production expanded. In 1941, aluminum sold for 15 cents per pound. By 1950, prices dropped to 10 cents. By 1970, 5 cents. Falling prices enabled new applications. Commercial aviation. Postwar aircraft increasingly used aluminum. The Boeing 707 introduced in 1958 was 85% aluminum by weight. Aluminum enabled the jet age.
Automotive aluminum engine blocks, wheels, and body panels became common as prices fell. Fuel efficiency improvements depended on weight reduction that aluminum enabled. Construction. Aluminum windows, doors, and siding became standard. The aluminum and glass skyscrapers that define modern cities became economically viable.
Packaging. Aluminum foil introduced commercially in 1947 became ubiquitous. Aluminum cans for beverages developed in the 1960s revolutionized packaging. Electricity transmission. Aluminum gradually replaced copper in power lines. Lower conductivity was offset by lower cost and weight. Every one of these applications traces back to 1944 production expansion.
The infrastructure built to win the war created the aluminum industry that enabled postwar prosperity. The dams remain. Grand Coulie Dam still operates producing 21 billion kilowatt hours annually. Bonnyville Dam continues generating power. The 14 major dams on the Columbia River system collectively produce 44% of American hydroelectric power.
The smelters have mostly closed. Rising electricity costs and environmental regulations made Pacific Northwest aluminum production less competitive globally. The last major smelter, Alcoa’s and Telco works near Bellingham, Washington permanently closed in 2021. Aluminum production shifted to countries with cheaper electricity.
Canada, hydroelectric, China, coal, Iceland, geothermal, Middle East, oil, and gas. The Colombia River no longer produces aluminum metal, but it still produces electricity. The environmental costs are still being addressed. Salmon restoration efforts continue with mixed success. Treaties with Native American tribes acknowledge but don’t fully compensate for resources lost.
Super fund sites remain where smelters operated but the strategic lesson remains. In total war, industrial capacity determines outcomes and industrial capacity depends on energy. Germany had skilled engineers, effective weapons, experienced military leaders. But Germany didn’t have the Colombia River. Didn’t have the hydroelectric potential to triple aluminum production in two years.
Didn’t have the industrial base to convert electricity into aircraft at scale. America did. The river that Native Americans had fished for 10 millennia became the power source that built an air force. The dams constructed during the depression became strategic assets in global war. Henry Kaiser who built Liberty ships and operated aluminum smelters observed in 1942.
Every kilowatt hour produced by Grand Coulie Dam is a rivet in a bomber, a bullet in a soldier’s gun, a ton of supplies landed in England. He was right. But more fundamentally, every kilowatt hour was an aluminum atom and aluminum atoms became aircraft. Aircraft became air superiority. Air superiority became victory. The physics was immutable.
Aluminum requires electricity. Electricity requires dams. Dams require rivers and engineering and political will to transform landscape for strategic purpose. America had all three. By the time American strategists fully grasped aluminum centrality, engineers were already building the infrastructure to produce it at scale.
See Also
Calcium-Magnesium Balance
Table of the Elements - Russell Elements