The Evolution of Matter - the book
List of Illustrations
TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXI
PAPERS BY THE AUTHOR PUBLISHED IN THE REVUE SCIENTIFIQUE . . . . . . . . . . . xxv
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I
CHAPTER I.
THE THEORY OF INTRA-ATOMIC ENERGY AND THE PASSING-AWAY OF MATTER.
§ I. The new ideas on the Dissociation of Matter - Matter not indestructible - Radio-activity universal property of Matter - Intra-atomic Energy - General Propositions.
§ 2. Matter and Force - Matter a variety of Energy - All Phenomena transformations of Equilibrium - Energy consequence of Condensation of Nebula.
§ 3· Consequences of the Vanishing of Matter - Nothing created, everything perishes -Destruction of Matter very slow - Indestructibility of Mass must go - Possibly Conservation of Energy also - Atoms Planetary Systems . . . . . . . . . . . 5-18
Author's discovery of Black Light - Of radio-activity of all bodies - M. Becquerel on the reflection, etc., of Uranium Rays - Acceptance of author's theory by M. de Heen Unpopularity at outset - Testimony of M. Dastre - Of M. Lucien Poincare - Of English writers - M. de Heen's comparison of the discovery of Black Light with that of X Rays - M. Georges Bohn's appreciation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-34
vii
INTRA-ATOMIC ENERGY: ITS MAGNITUDE.
§ 1. The Existence of Intra-atomic Energy - Emission of particles with enormous speed by Matter when Dissociating - Energy developed equal to that of 1,340,000 barrels of gunpowder - This Energy within not without the Atom - Its Origin.
§ 2. Estimate of Quantity of Energy in Matter - That contained in the smallest coin sufficient to send train more than four times round the Earth - Other measurements by Rutherford, Max Abraham, and J. J. Thomson.
§ 3· Forms of Energy condensed in Matter - Kinetic Energy in pin's bead = 208,873,000,000 kilogrammetres.
§ 4· Utilization of Intra-atomic Energy - Useless at present because Dissociation of Matter cannot be hastened - This Difficulty overcome, power will be free to all . . . 35-51
TRANSFORMATION OF MATTER INTO ENERGY.
Old Idea that Matter had nothing in common with Energy - Difficulty of upsetting this notion - Lord Kelvin's first view - New Ideas only make their way gradually - Influence of Prestige on scientific belief . . . . . . 52-59
FORCES DERIVED FROM INTRA-ATOMIC ENERGY - MOLECULAR FORCES, ELECTRICITY, SOLAR HEAT, ETC.
§ 1. Origin of Molecular Forces - Cohesion, chemical affinity, etc., only explicable as Intra-atomic Energy.
§ 2. Origin of Electricity - Constantly increasing importance of Electricity -
Electricity form of Intra-atomic Energy set free by Dissociation of Matter.
§ 3· Origin of Solar Heat - Stars not necessarily cooling - Heat lost by Radiation may be compensated for by Energy liberated in Dissociation . . . . . . . . 60-67
IX
OBJECTIONS TO THE DOCTRINE OF INTRA-ATOMIC ENERGY.
M. Poincare's, M. Painleve's, and M. Naquet's objection that no endothermic combination stable - Answer: Matter not stable since easily dissociated - M. A. Gautier's confirmation of this - M. Despaux's objection: quantity of matter and energy in the world invariable - Answer: facts about radium disprove this - M. Ducland and M. Laisant's criticisms - Professors Filippo Re's, Somerhausen's, and Pia's opinions - Consequences of sudden dissociation of gramme of radium - Annee Scientifique's and M. Sagaret's remarks . . . . . . . . 68-79
THE WORLD OF THE IMPONDERABLE.
CHAPTER I.
CLASSIC SEPARATION BETWEEN PONDERABLE AND IMPONDERABLE - IS THERE AN INTERMEDIATE WORLD?
Lavoisier's Definition and Berthelot's Approval - Larmor's reconciliation of Ether and Matter - Particles emitted during Dissociation of Matter the link with Ether . . . . . . . .80-86
IMMATERIAL BASIS OF UNIVERSE: THE ETHER.
Importance of Ether in Physics - Difficulty of defining its Properties - Not a gas - Other opinions - Imponderable but condensable - Larmor's opinion that Material Molecule only Ether . . . . . . . . . 87-93
DIFFERENT EQUILIBRIA IN THE ETHER.
All ethereal equilibria very unstable - Vortex ring theory - Explains Gravitation- M. A. Gautier's opinions on this - M. Benard's experiments - Matter a particular state of ethereal Equilibrium . . . . . . .94-100
x
THE DEMATERIALIZATION OF MATTER.
CHAPTER I.
INTERPRETATION OF DISSOCIATION EXPERIMENTS.
§ 1. The First Interpretations - Crookes' "ultra-gaseous" state - Kinetic Theory of gases described - Cathode Rays really identical with Particles of dissociating Matter.
§ 2. Interpretations now current - Discovery of X and Uranium Rays make old explanations untenable - Ionization merely Dissociation - Contrasts between Ordinary and Ionic Electricity - Dissociation Products identical for all substances . . . . . . . 101-112
PRODUCTS · OF DEMATERIALIZATION OF MATTER.
§ 1. Classification of above Products - Classification necessary - Can he divided into six Classes.
§ 2 . Characteristics of Dissociation Elements: viz., Emanation, Positive and Negative Ions, Electrons, Cathode Rays and X Rays . . . . . . . 113-129
DEMATERIALIZATION OF SPECIALLY RADIO-ACTIVE SUBSTANCES.
§ 1. Products of Dematerialization of such Substances.
§ 2. a rays or Positive Ions.
§ 3· b rays or Negative Electrons.
§ 4· Y or X rays.
§ 5· Semi-material Emanation of Radio-active Substances.
§ 6. Induced Radio-Activity. All these stages in return of Matter towards Ether . . . . . . . 130-147
DEMATERIALIZATION OF ORDINARY BODIES.
§ 1. Causes of Dematerialization - How Dissociation proved.
§ 2. Dissociation by Light.
§ 3· By Chemical Reactions.
§ 4· By Electric Action.
§ 5· By Combustion.
§ 6. By Heat.
§ 7· Spontaneous Dissociation.
§ 8. Part played by Dissociation in Natural Phenomena . . . . . . . . . 148-162
xi
ARTIFICIAL EQUILIBRIA OF ELEMENTS PRODUCED BY DISSOCIATION.
Possibility of photographing momentary Equilibria - Attractions and Repulsions of dissociated Particles - Globular Electricity -The Ionic Fluid and its Geometrical Forms . . . . . . . 163-171
HOW MATTER CAN DISSOCIATE.
§ I. Causes of modification of molecular and atomic structures - Equilibria disturbed by slight but appropriate action -Acoustic analogy.
§ 2. Mechanism of Dissociation.
§ 3· Causes of Dissociation of very Radio-active Substances.
§ 4· Does Radium Exist? . . . . . . . . . . . . 172-187
THE INTERMEDIATE WORLD BETWEEN MATTER AND ETHER.
CHAPTER I.
PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES INTERMEDIATE BETWEEN MATTER AND ETHER.
Only irreducible characteristic of Malter Mass - Variation of Mass in case of Electric Fluid - Kaufmann and Abraham's Researches on this - Particles real link between Ponderable and Imponderable . . . . . . . . 188-197
ELECTRICITY A SEMI-MATERIAL SUBSTANCE.
§ 1. Radio-active ancl Electrical Phenomena.
§ 2. Elements emitted by Electric Machine compared with Emissions of Radio-active Bodies - Aigrettes identical with a, b, and Y Rays - Aigrettes also give ultra-violet light - Experiments with Dr. Oudin . . . . . . . 198-214
xii
PROPERTIES OF ELECTRIC AXD MATERIAL FLUIDS COMPARED.
Superior Mobility of Electric Fluid - Cornu's Analogies - Neutral Electric Fluid not observable - Susceptibility to Gravitation real Distinction . . . . . . . . . 215-219
MOVEMENTS OF ELECTRIC PARTICLES.
Example of Electrified Sphere at Rest: no Magnetic Force - In Motion, Magnetic Force appears - Acceleration of Motion produces vibrations of Ether - Rowland's and Zeeman's Experiments - Electronic Theory . . . . . . . . . 220-227
CONSTITUTION OF MATTER AND FORCES WHICH MAINTAIN MATERIAL EDIFICES.
§ 1. Former Ideas on Structure of Atoms.
§ 2. Current Ideas on Constitution of Matter.
§ 3. Magnitude of Elements of Matter.
§ 4. Forces which maintain Molecular Structures.
§ 5. Attractions, Repulsions and Equilibria of Isolated Molecules - Osmotic Phenomena and Leduc's Experiments . . . . . . . . 228-247
VARIATIONS OF MATERIAL EQUILIBRIA WITH CHANGE OF ENVIRONMENT.
§ 1. Mobility and Sensibility of Matter.
§ 2. Variation of Equilibria with Change of Medium - Matter in incessant Motion . . . . . . . .248-255
xiii
VARIOUS ASPECTS OF MATTER.
§ 1. Gaseous, Liquid, and Solid States.
§ 2 . Crystalline State of Matter and Life of Crystals - Von Schron's Experiments - Double Generation of Crystals . . . . . . 256-262
UNITY OF COMPOSITION OF SIIIIPLE BODIES.
§ 1. Are all Simple Bodies formed from One Element?
§ 2. Are Simple bodies of Unvarying Fixity? - Berthelot's Experiments - Chemical species variable . . . . . . . 263-273
VARIABILITY OF CHEMICAL SPECIES.
§ 1. Variability of Simple Bodies - Author's Experiments on Variation of Elements by Actions by Presence - Transmutation of Elements.
§ 2. Variability of Compounds - Action of Caffeine and Theobromine combined - Modification of Atomic Equilibria possible . . . . . . . . 274-287
CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIA OF MATERIAL SUBSTANCES.
§ 1. Chemical Equilibria of Minerals.
§ 2. Of Organic Substances - Living Being an Aggregate of Cells . . . . . . . 288-295
INTRA-ATOMiC CHEMISTRY AND THE UNKNOWN EQUILIBRIA OF MATTER.
§ 1· Intra-atomic Chemistry.
§ 2. Colloid Metals.
§ 3. Diastases, Enzymes, Toxins, and Action by Presence - Catalyzers Liberators of Energy.
§ 4. Oscillating Chemical Equilibria . . . . . . . . 296-306
xiv
BIRTH, EVOLUTION, AND END OF MATTER.
§ 1. Genesis and Evolution of Atoms - Nebulae and the Spectroscope - Atom follows law of Birth, Growth, and Death.
§ 2. End of Matter - Electricity one of its last stages, Ethereal vibrations last of all.
§ 3. Conclusions, Recapitulation, and Functions of Hypothesis . . . . . . . . 307-319
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCHES.
PREFATORY NOTE . . . . . . .321
GENERAL METHODS OF VERIFYING DISSOCIATION . . . . . . . . 322-329
METHOD OF VERIFYING DISSOCIATION BY LIGHT . . . . . . . . 330-337
DISSOCIATION BY VARIOUS PARTS OF SPECTRUM . . . . . . . . 338-356
POSSIBILITY OF RENDERING ORDINARY BODIES RADIO-ACTIVE . . . . . . . . . 357-359
xv
NEGATIVE LEAK CAUSED BY LIGHT . . . . . . . . . 360-376
DISSOCIATION BY COMBUSTION . . . . . . . . . 377-382
DISSOCIATION BY CHEMICAL REACTIONS . . . . . . . . . 383-389
DISSOCIATION OF VERY RADIO-ACTIVE BODIES . . . . . . . . . 390-393
IONIZATION OF GASES . . . . . . . . . 394-398
EMANATION FROM ALL SUBSTANCES . . . . . . . . . 399-402
ABSENCE OF RADIO-ACTIVITY IN FINELY-DIVIDED BODIES . . . . . . . . . 403
VARIABILITY OF CHEMICAL SPECIES . . . . . . . . . 404-414
xvi
PASSAGE THROUGH MATTER OF DISSOCIATED PARTICLES . . . . . . 415-418
HISTORICAL DOCUMENTS . . . . . . 419-428
INDEX OF AUTHORS . . . . . . 429
INDEX OF SUBJECTS . . . . . . 432