Return to Physics of the Ether

118. The Interchange of Motion in the Locomotive. — We may, as a good illustration, briefly consider the processes involved in the interchange of motion taking place in the locomotive engine. "We will regard the state of the case at the point when the steam has been just freshly turned on; then at that instant the molecules of steam, previously in motion and rebounding from each other and from the closed valve of the steam pipe, move along the pipe with their normal velocity on the valve being opened, and impinging against the pistons, transfer part of their velocity to the latter, causing the propulsion of the engine. The loss of motion thus sustained by the steam molecules next the piston is transmitted backwards in the form of a wave, by interchange of motion from molecule to molecule into the steam space of the boiler, the transmission of the wave (or decrement of velocity) being the necessary consequence of the exchange of motion going on among the steam molecules, the rate of transmission of the wave being that of the molecules themselves. This loss of motion, therefore, next affects the surface molecules of the water, and the water thus chilled sinks downwards, thus transmitting the loss of motion to the molecules of the metallic casing forming the heating surface of the boiler. The loss of motion thence passes to the molecules of the fuel next the metallic casing, or the loss of motion is sustained by the store of motion in the furnace, and since the ether is the motive agent of the molecular motion of the fuel, every decrement of motion sustained by the molecules of the fuel is a decrement sustained by the ether, the decrement sustained by the fuel having been previously supplied by the ether, and in this way, therefore, the loss of motion is brought to bear upon the source of motion, the ether.

If this included all the points of the process, therefore, the loss of motion sustained by the molecules of the fuel might have been supplied to these molecules some time previously, the motion having existed in the interval as a store motion in the fuel, ready to be given up at any time. If this, however, were the precise state of the case, the supply of motion by the ether would necessarily be wholly independent of the withdrawal of this motion from the fuel, or the two processes would go on quite independently of each other; and if this were the case, the amount of motion supplied by the ether to the fuel would be quite independent of the fact, whether this motion was utilized (expended) or not, i. e. the ether would continue to supply motion quite independently of the fact whether there was a demand for motion or not. Now, it may be shown that this is not the actual case, but

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that by a special process the supply of motion by the ether becomes to a certain extent adjusted to the demand, or a rapid drain o£ motion from the fuel (i. e. from the freshly combined molecules of carbon and oxygen) brings the ether into augmented action, and when there is no demand for the motion of the fuel the energy of the ether is held to a certain extent in reserve. In order to follow this process we must consider certain points.

119. It is a known fact that an elevation of temperature beyond a certain degree tends to separate chemically combined molecules (and, indeed, molecules generally), and by a due elevation of temperature the molecules are completely separated ("dissociated"), or an excessive degree of vibrating energy is unfavourable to the stable union of the molecules, or, as before alluded to, a certain degree of vibrating energy exists which is the best adapted to effect a reduction of the ether pressure between the molecules, causing them to approach with maximum energy. When, therefore, the temperature of combined molecules is raised beyond the point which corresponds to the maximum stability of their union, the molecules commence to recede from each other, the molecules at last separating completely at the temperature of dissociation. When, conversely, the temperature of molecules is beyond the temperature of dissociation, a lowering of the temperature may be followed by a combination of the molecules, the molecules afterwards gradually approaching into closer proximity as the excessive vibrating energy is gradually reduced.

Thus, if we take, for example, the case of the combination of the constituent molecules of carbon and oxygen to form a com- pound carbonic acid molecule in the combustion of coal, then the nigh velocity with which the pair of vibrating molecules in their approach are driven against the intercepted oscillating ether column intensifies so greatly the vibrating energy of the column that the molecules are temporarily checked by their own rapid approach; and as the excessive vibrating energy is gradually dissipated in the surrounding ether, the molecules gradually approach into closer proximity. But this approach of the molecules, in which act the pair of vibrating molecules are slowly urged by the ether pressure against the intercepted vibrating ether column, is necessarily attended by fresh increments of vibrating energy in the molecules, so that, in fact, the molecules cool more slowly than would otherwise be the case; and instead of all the vibrating energy (heat) being developed and concentrated in the first act of approach of the molecules, a part of the heat is subsequently generated; but, as an important point, this subsequent generation of heat is entirely subject to the condition that the heat first generated is drawn off or utilized; for unless this be the case, i. e. unless the vibrating energy of the molecules change (by the loss of heat), the molecules will necessarily remain at a fixed distance from each other, suited to their special degree of vibrating energy, and the molecules

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would not approach into closer proximity at all unless their vibrating energy were changed, Le. unless their heat were drawn off; so that, therefore, by the absence of demand for heat, the energy of the ether is held in reserve; and conversely, by a rapid drain upon the heat, the molecules would rapidly take up their final positions of proximity due to normal vibrating energy, and thus the ether, by urging the vibrating molecules into closer proximity, follows up the demand for heat by a fresh supply.

120. By this special process the work of combustion is greatly equalized, and instead of the intense initial heat that would result, were all the heat developed in the first instant of combination of the molecules, the initial heat is moderated, and the development of heat equalized by being spread over a certain period of time. By this process the action of combustion, as in the case of the locomotive, for example, is brought to bear against, or is spread over a larger surface, and instead of all the heat being concentrated to an excessive amount in the furnace itself, which would possibly be detrimental to the constructive materials, a portion of the heat is generated in the tubes of the boiler, or an incandescent carbonic acid molecule in its progress through the tube develops fresh increments of vibrating energy, by the gradual approach of its pair of components under the action of the ether, as the vibrating energy of these components is gradually expended in the progress of the molecule through the tube. The compound molecule forms, therefore, an extremely sensitive piece of mechanism, the slightest change of temperature (change of vibrating energy) causing a readjustment of the distance of its pair of components relatively to the intercepted vibrating ether column, whereby the ether comes into fresh action.

From these considerations it would also follow that the escape of products of combustion at a high temperature is not only wasteful on account of the absolute heat being thus lost, but also on account of the fact that the additional heat generated as the lowering of the temperature proceeds is also lost.

The turning on of the steam in the case of the locomotive, followed by the continued chilling of the extensive surface of the flue-tubes by the continued evaporation of the water as the engine proceeds, therefore brings the ether into fresh action in the flues, whereby combustion is more complete than would otherwise be the fact, and thus the demand for heat by a self-acting mechanism brings the ether into action, causing a fresh supply.

121. We may perhaps just note here, in connection with this subject, that this special deportment of aggregated molecules admits of being illustrated by a case in which the effect is actually visible. For the effect to be visible it is clearly only necessary that the molecules should be aggregated in sufficient numbers as to multiply the effect of each pair of molecules, and thereby render the effect visible. Thus the attraction of heat from a heated bar

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of metal, for example, is followed by a closer approach of each pair of molecules forming the bar (the contraction of the bar being measurable) under the action of the ether, whereby each pair of vibrating molecules is slowly but forcibly urged against the oscillating ether column intercepted between them, a fresh development of vibrating energy in the molecules being the result, or more heat must be abstracted from the bar in order to lower its temperature to a given degree than if the bar did not contract (i. e. if its molecules did not approach), this additional quantity of heat being precisely that developed by the ether in effecting the approach 01 the molecules. The effect is of course relatively feeble here compared with the effect in the case of the more intimate grouping of dissimilar molecules about a common centre to form compound molecules (chemical union), the effect being greater in proportion as the energy of chemical combination is greater, and also in proportion as the range of temperature to which the molecules are exposed is greater. Thus, to form a just appreciation of the effect in the illustrative case given of the loco- motive, we must take into account the energy of the approach of molecules in combustion, and also the extreme range of temperature to which the products of combustion are exposed.

It may also be observed that in a perfectly analogous manner the aggregated molecules of the metallic bar may be dissociated, or completely separated, by a due elevation of temperature.

122. In the interchange of motion taking place in the locomotive, it forms a point of interest to observe how in mechanical conformity velocity is apportioned to mass, or we have the extremely rapid motion of the minute ether particles, the slower motion of the larger masses constituting the molecules of coal and steam, and the still slower motion adapted to the large masses forming the visible part of the mechanism. Also the transference of motion takes place step by step by a gradual process, the motion passing first from the minute but rapidly-moving ether particles to the relatively large masses of the molecules of coal, the motion passing thence through the intervention of the molecules of steam, to the massive and slowly-moving pistons.

In the inverse process by which the motion is returned to the ether, or to its original source, the transference of motion takes place in the same gradual way, the motion passing from the massive moving parts of the engine to molecules, as represented by the heat developed in the working parts, the motion passing from these molecules to the ether in the form of waves (by radia- tion). The escaping steam and gaseous products of combustion whose residual motion has not been transferred to masses, lose this motion by transference to the ether; and thus the motion derived from the ether is being continually returned to the ether during the progress of the engine. The process involved is therefore a cyclical one, consisting in the transference of motion from the

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ether through matter to the ether; or the process involved in the case of the locomotive, viewed fundamentally, consists in the ingenious disposal of a train of matter under such physical conditions that this train of matter takes motion from the ether at one end and returns the motion to the ether at the other end. A fundamental principle of extreme simplicity, therefore, underlies the complexity of the mechanical arrangement.

123. It is a very firmly grounded idea that simplicity should exist in the working of physical phenomena, or that physical processes should be simple. Now, although the existence of this simplicity is an undoubted fact proved by experience, the existence of a strict cause for this is not perhaps so generally recognized. Without attempting at all to go fully into this question, we think that at least one determining cause for this simplicity may be pointed out. A physical process resembles, and indeed may be defined as, a mechanical process. Now, in all the mechanical processes of industry, as in constructive mechanics, or in any case whatever where a mechanical means or adaptation is applied to an end, simplicity is actually recognized as the governing principle. The whole aim of constructive mechanism is directed towards simplicity, as in the case of the locomotive, for example; the advance towards simplicity constitutes one of the main stages of its progress. The real fact is, that the end is not otherwise attainable except under the condition of simplicity, for if a mechanical adaptation or machine be not simple, or if it have more parts than are absolutely essential to the intended purpose, the machine will. not fullfil its intended purpose, i.e. it will not perform its functions in a proper and orderly manner. To have, therefore, order in the working of any mechanical process, or means to an end, simplicity may be said to be a necessary condition. If, therefore, order be observed to exist, the existence of simplicity may be deduced therefrom. It is, therefore, not a mere question as regards superfluity, or that simplicity is desirable because superfluity would be in vain, but the end is not attainable at all excepting under the condition of simplicity. It would follow from these considerations that simplicity in physical phenomena may properly be regarded as the absolutely necessary condition to the attainment 01 the observed results, or as the essential condition to the proper and orderly working of physical phenomena.

In the case of the locomotive, for example, simplicity, or no superfluity of parts, must be as essential to its molecular mechanism (i. e. the mechanism of the coal, ether, and steam) as to its larger scale mass mechanism, for mere dimensions or size cannot affect the principle evolved, the larger scale mass mechanism being itself composed of the very same parts of which the molecular mechanism consists, for the mass mechanism is all made up of molecules surrounded by the ether. Hence we may expect

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to find simplicity and no superfluity of parts in the molecular mechanism of the locomotive; nevertheless it is just as essential that this mechanism of the vibrating molecules of coal and the ether, with their mutual interchange of motion, should have connected parts and should form a connected whole, as that the larger scale mass mechanism should have connected parts and should form a connected whole, for the principle of reasoning and the method of viewing the subject cannot in any way be affected by a change of dimensions of the mechanism. The molecular mechanism of the locomotive, minute in detail but vast as a whole, may indeed be regarded as the main part of the mechanism, for there the motion originates. The mere outer shell and appliances of the locomotive without the mechanism of the action of the ether upon the vibrating molecules of coal, might be compared to the outer shell of a flute with its arrangement of keys without the hidden mechanism of the air, which by its stationary vibrations in columns of varied length is the real source of the sound, the outer shell of the flute fulfilling a purely subsidiary part.

It might also have been observed above, in connection with the subject of simplicity, that the beauty of simplicity consists in its uniqueness; for while there are an indefinite number of ways of attaining a result or mechanical end by a complicated method, there is but one way of attaining the result by a simple method, which therefore entails a special exercise of the intellect to find it.

124. Steam owes its handiness and power as a dynamic agent to the physical qualities of a rapid motion of its component molecules combined with lightness (i. e. small quantity of matter relatively to the unit volume of space); and just as these special physical qualities exist developed to a far higher degree in the case of the ether, so the ether is by so much superior to steam as a dynamic agent. Steam evidently cannot be looked upon as a true dynamic agent or source of motion, since steam only becomes a dynamic agent after the motion to be utilized has been imparted to its molecules. The ether, on the other hand, is a true dynamic agent or source of motion, since the ether in its normal state already encloses a store of motion. In the case of the locomotive, therefore, the motion cannot be said to be derived either from the steam or the coal, since the former is not a dynamic agent, and the coal has no motion to impart. The motion can only be derived from a source where motion exists, i. e. from the ether, whose normal state is a state of motion; the coal and steam simply forming convenient pieces of intervening mechanism by which the motion of the ether is transferred to the pistons, just as the connecting-rod, for example, is the convenient piece of mechanism by which motion is transferred from the pistons to the wheels.

125. The Energy of Combustion. — It is a known fact that the

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dynamic value of the combustion of one pound of coal (carbon) amounts to about eleven million foot-pounds. From this it may be computed that the intensity of the energy developed at the combustion of coal is such that it would be competent to project the mass of coal and oxygen taking part in the process to a height of not less than 570 miles.

Now, regarding this remarkable fact as any other mechanical question or engineering problem, and with the view to form a practical realization of the means by which this result is attained, or the mode in which this amount of energy can be brought to bear against the coal, such as the coal filling the furnace of a locomotive, for example, it is well to keep practically in view the important peculiarity of the molecular state of matter, by which a vast extent of surface is brought under the dynamic action of the ether, the ether pervading the entire mass of coal which fills the furnace, and surrounding each one of the innumerable molecules of the mass. If we take a single cubic inch of coal and imagine it spread out into a layer, one molecule in thickness, some idea may

Perhaps be formed of the amount of surface that must be exposed, f we suppose that a carbon molecule would be contained within the limits of -nr .ooo . ooo inch, then such a layer of coal would cover upwards of one acre and a half. This estimate is merely intended to give a rough idea of the vast extent of surface that must be exposed, the estimate being probably less than the actual fact, since the above assumed value for a molecular dimension is almost beyond question too great.

If, therefore, this represent the surface exposed by a single cubic inch of coal, what must be the vast-extent of surface exposed by the mass of coal which fills an ordinary locomotive furnace? If we figure to ourselves this vast extent of surface brought under the play of the. intense ether pressure, or these innumerable molecules of carbon brought under the intense dynamic action of the ether which pervades the furnace, then the intense energy of combustion will reconcile itself with ordinary mechanical principles, and even become a necessary deduction following these principles.

126. Movements of Animals. — It is a recognized fact that a fixed relation exists between the movements of the animal body or the work performed, and the chemical processes taking place within the animal system, the work performed being the exact mechanical equivalent of the energy developed at the oxidation of the food; the animal system in this respect, therefore, precisely resembling a mechanical motor, such as the steam engine, for example, where the work performed is the exact mechanical equivalent of the energy developed by the combustion (oxidation) of the coal, including of course under total work, in both cases, the attendant dissipation of a portion of the energy in the form of heat.

The ether being the physical agent concerned in chemical pro-

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cesses generally, whether in the oxidation of the food in the case of the animal body, or in the oxidation of the coal in the case of the steam engine, the ether therefore must constitute the original source of motion in the case of the animal system, as in the case of the steam engine, and that of mechanical motors generally.

In a perfectly analogous way the entire work done by the animal system goes in its final stage to the ether (in the form of waves of heat, &c), i. e. to its original source in a cyclical process. However complex and varied, therefore, the molecular processes and changes may be which take place within the animal system in the passage of the motion through its intermediate stages, and however difficult it may be to follow the motion through the entire cycle, it is none the less certain that the ether is the primary source and final receptacle of the motion.